1. Executive Summary
This joint investigation conducted by Synergy Association for Victims (Synergy) and Syrians for Truth and Justice (STJ) documents grave human rights violations—including summary (field) executions, arbitrary arrests, torture, and the seizure or looting of property in the cities of Manbij and Tall Rifaat, as well as in Shahba region in Aleppo’s countryside. These violations occurred during and after the military operation code-named Dawn of Freedom, launched on 30 November 2024 by Turkish-backed factions of the Syrian National Army (SNA).
This report draws on 18 interviews with victims and eyewitnesses—most of whom fled the targeted areas fearing arrest or death. Interviewees detailed violations against displacement convoys encompassing thousands of civilians, the majority of them Kurds. Some were prevented from leaving the targeted areas, while others were forcibly directed toward Afrin—a destination many feared due to ongoing reports of arbitrary detention, torture, and the release of detainees only after the payment of exorbitant ransoms. The documented violations also include the killing of civilians in the convoys over alleged ties to the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), along with beatings, torture, property confiscation, and acts of humiliation and intimidation at gunpoint.
The killings also targeted women, some of whom were executed for working with institutions affiliated with the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) or for alleged ties to the SDF. Captured fighters, with the SDF or related forces, were not spared, including the wounded. In one case, an injured fighter receiving treatment at a hospital in Manbij was executed. His killing was documented in a video circulated online and later verified by partner organizations.
No fewer than 52 civilians were arrested in Manbij and its countryside by factions participating in the operation. Sixteen of the detainees were released after paying ransoms, while the fate of the others remains unknown. In most cases, the accusations were similar—alleged affiliation with the SDF, the AANES, or employment in AANES-linked civil institutions. In one documented instance, a Kurdish civilian was forced to pay $5,000 for his release.
Also in Manbij, factions seized more than 20 homes belonging to Kurdish civilians who had fled the city. Most of these properties were marked as “confiscated.” One woman affected by the seizures reported that she had to pay $3,000 just to be allowed to remain in her own home.
2. Methodology
For the purpose of this report, Synergy and STJ conducted in-depth research between December 2024 and April 2025. The research included interviews with 18 individuals—comprising victims of and eyewitnesses to the violations that took place during Operation Dawn of Freedom, led by Turkish-backed factions of the SNA, as well as violations committed after these factions seized control of the cities of Manbij and Tall Rifaat, and the Shahba region in the northern countryside of Aleppo.
Four of those interviewed were residing in Manbij at the time of the interviews. The remaining 14 had been forcibly displaced from the targeted areas and were living in various locations across northeastern Syria, including the cities of al-Hasakah, Qamishli/Qamishlo, Amuda, Tabqa in Raqqa province, Ayn al-Arab/Kobani in northeastern Aleppo, and Aleppo city.
Thirteen interviews were conducted online over secure messaging applications. The remaining five were conducted in person in locations deemed safe and private by researchers and the interviewed people.
The field researchers obtained the interviewees’ informed consent. They clarified to all sources and witnesses the voluntary nature of the interview and the intended use of the information they would share, including the development and publication of this report. The majority of the interviewees requested anonymity and the removal of all identifying details, fearing reprisals from the SNA’s factions in control of their areas. As such, pseudonyms are used in this report to refer to individuals whose testimonies are cited.
In addition to the interviews, the research team reviewed a broad range of open-source materials, including reports issued by international and local human rights organizations and media outlets, as well as videos, images, and social media posts. Some information from these sources was incorporated into the report only after being thoroughly verified.
3. Background
The city of Manbij and its countryside experienced a serious and unprecedented escalation in human rights violations perpetrated by SNA factions, affiliated with the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces (SNC)—both the SNA and the SNC receive backing from Türkiye. This escalation followed the SNA’s control over the city on 8 December 2024,[1] after intense clashes with the SDF as part of the military operation dubbed Dawn of Freedom, which began on 30 November 2024.[2] The operation was launched only days after Operation Deterrence of Aggression, announced on 27 November 2024 by armed groups affiliated with the now-dissolved Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), which led to the ousting of the Syrian regime.[3]
Since the launch of Operation Dawn of Freedom, these factions advanced into the areas of Tall Rifaat and Shahba, northern Aleppo. Their subsequent capture of Manbij served a strategic objective: to disrupt SDF supply lines and establish a military corridor linking Tall Rifaat to al-Bab city,[4] which is a part of the Euphrates Shield strip that has been under Türkiye’s effective control since it was seized by the Turkish military and the SNA in late 2017.
Image 1 and 2 – Maps of the areas targeted during “Operation Dawn of Freedom” in NWS.
The Operation Dawn of Freedom was spearheaded by factions designated by the U.S. Department of Treasury for their involvement in serious human rights violations, including murder, enforced disappearance, and property seizure. Among the most prominent factions are al-Hamza/al-Hamzat Division, led by Sayf Boulad, known as Abu Bakr; [5] the Sultan Suleiman Shah Brigade/al-Amshat, commanded by Mohammad Hussein al-Jasim (Abu Amsha);[6] and Tajammu Ahrar al-Sharqiya, led by Ahmad Ihsan Fayyad al-Hayes, known as Abu Hatem Shaqra.[7] The latter’s group was responsible for the execution of the Kurdish politician Hevrin Khalaf, along with her driver and two escorts, during the early days of Türkiye’s Operation Peace Spring in 2019.[8] Notably, the al-Hamza/al-Hamzat Division and the Sultan Suleiman Shah Brigade are currently operating under a joint banner known as the Joint Force.
Notably, the integration of SNA factions into the newly established Syrian Ministry of Defense was announced following the “Victory Conference”, convened by Ahmed al-Sharaa, who was appointed president of the transitional period.[9] Furthermore, reports suggested that the SNC, the political umbrella of the SNA, was considering dissolving itself.[10]
Later, the Ministry of Defense appointed Mohammed al-Jasim, known as Abu Amsha, as a commander for the Hama Division,[11] stationed in the very location of the 25th Division under the former Syrian regime.[12] This appointment followed al-Jasim’s promotion to the rank of Brigadier General.[13] Furthermore, the Ministry of Defence had appointed Sayf Boulad, known as Abu Bakr, as a Brigadier General and Commander of the 76th Division in the Syrian Army, assigned to operate within Aleppo province.[14] In an interview that preceded these designations, Minister of Defence, Marhaf Abu Qasra, stated that the ministry’s priority is to integrate the factions and military units from across Syrian territory into the Ministry of Defense. He stressed that the armed factions were not asked to surrender their weapons, but to integrate into the ministry through a structured and legal process.[15]
The SNA factions’ attack on and subsequent takeover of Manbij, Tall Rifaat, and Shahba resulted in numerous civilian casualties and triggered a large-scale displacement crisis. Tens of thousands of people fled Shahba areas heading to Tabqa and Raqqa.[16] Shahba is home to several camps that sheltered the largest portion of Afrin’s population,[17] who were forcibly displaced due to the Turkish military Operation Olive Branch in 2018.
Manbij also experienced a substantial wave of displacement, with an estimated 200 to 300 Kurdish families, along with a few Arab families, fleeing amid escalating violence and documented human rights violations. These violations included summary executions, arbitrary arrests, torture, and property seizures, as reported in cross-verified testimonies from displaced individuals, who were interviewed by the partner organizations.
It is noteworthy that the violations committed in the targeted areas—particularly in Manbij, and mostly against Kurdish civilians—are consistent with those documented in the Kurdish-majority regions of Afrin in northwest Syria, as well as Ras al-Ayn/Serê Kaniyê and Tall Abyad in the northeastern parts of the country. These latter areas were previously seized by SNA factions, following the two Turkish military operations Olive Branch in 2018 and Peace Spring in 2019, respectively.[18] Residents in these regions have faced arbitrary arrests, torture, the release of detainees for exorbitant ransoms, and the widespread and systematic confiscation of properties, homes, and land—all perpetrated continuously by the SNA factions with no accountability. This raises serious concerns that Manbij could become another hotspot for similar violations and impunity, unless the Syrian Transitional Government (STG) takes decisive action to prevent the recurrence of such documented abuses and holds both individuals and factions accountable.
The population of Manbij is also enduring the devastating consequences of ongoing security instability and lack of services. The city was shaken by seven car bomb explosions since the SNA factions took over.[19] The deadliest of these took place on 3 February 2025, claiming the lives of 21 women and one man.[20] Moreover, essential services such as water and electricity have been disrupted for over two months since the Tishrin Dam went out of service on 10 December 2024. The dam has been the site of fierce clashes between the SDF and SNA factions, with Turkish air force backing the latter. This rendered the dam area a potential hotspot for war crimes, as civilians continue to protest near the dam against the targeting of this crucial facility vital to their survival.[21]
4. Legal Commentary and Recommendations
The statements of the victims interviewed for this report confirm that the armed groups involved in the Operation Dawn of Freedom have perpetrated serious violations, including killing, torture, verbal abuse, degrading treatment, sexual violence, and looting and seizure of properties and personal belongings. These violations will accordingly be addressed under international and national laws.
4.1. Under Applicable Syrian Laws
The Syrian Constitutional Declaration, issued on 13 March 2025, asserts that all existing Syrian laws shall remain in effect unless formally amended or repealed.[22] Therefore, the violations documented in this report will be addressed under the relevant legal frameworks. In particular, the targeting and killing of civilians based solely on their Kurdish ethnicity—an act of ethnically motivated murder—falls under Article 534 of the Syrian Penal Code, issued by Legislative Decree No. 148 of 1949, which stipulates that anyone who kills another for a base or ignoble motive, or whose actions result in the deaths of two or more individuals, shall be sentenced to life imprisonment with hard labor. Furthermore, the torture, ill-treatment, or degrading treatment of the victims contradicts Article 391 of the Penal Code, which states: ‘’Anyone who subjects a person to any form of hardship not permitted by law, with the intention of obtaining a confession or information about a crime, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term ranging from three months to three years. If the violence leads to illness or injury, the minimum penalty shall be one year in prison.’’ Additionally, Article 540 and related provisions of the Penal Code criminalize all forms of assault and bodily harm without requiring specific conditions for the act to be punishable. Likewise, the documented abuses violate Law No. 16 of 2022 on the Prohibition of Torture, which criminalizes torture in all its forms—regardless of the perpetrator’s status as a public official or the motive behind the act.
Furthermore, the arbitrary detention of victims, withholding information about their whereabouts, preventing relatives from finding their whereabouts or the reasons for the arrest, and demanding financial ransoms for their release constitute a crime of deprivation of liberty without any legitimate grounds as established in Article 556 of the Penal Code. The penalty for the perpetrator shall be temporary hard labor if deprivation of liberty exceeds one month, or if it is accompanied by physical or psychological torture. Moreover, the Penal Code criminalizes sexual assault—such as those committed against several women documented in this report—classifying them as criminal acts subject to severe penalties under Article 489 and subsequent provision.
With regard to the confiscation of the victims’ movable assets accompanying acts of violence and threats, such conduct constitutes the crime of robbery under Article 624 of the Penal Code, punishable by temporary hard labor. In turn, the unlawful confiscation of victims’ real estate is classified under the Penal Code as property seizure, with the perpetrators facing a sentence of up to six months’ imprisonment. This penalty increases to one year if the offense involves threats or coercion. Furthermore, if the seizure is carried out by two or more armed individuals—as is the case in most incidents documented in this report—the punishment may extend to three years’ imprisonment, in accordance with Article 723.
Insults and expressions of hatred or discrimination based on ethnicity—such as referring to victims as “Dogs of Qandil” or “Kurdish pigs,” as documented in this report—are criminalized under the Penal Code. Article 307 stipulates that any act, written material, or speech intended to incite sectarian, racial, or ethnic hatred, or to provoke conflict among different groups within the nation, constitutes a criminal offense. Perpetrators of such acts are subject to imprisonment for a period ranging from six months to two years.
4.2 Under International Laws
The right to life is a sacred right in international covenants and charters, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966, alongside other international treaties concerning human rights and the fundamental freedoms. These instruments unequivocally prohibit extrajudicial killings and summary executions without trial before courts that uphold the essential standards of fair trial. Moreover, the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 —which constitute the core of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)—prohibit the killing of civilians and of individuals who have ceased to participate in hostilities, whether in international or non-international armed conflicts.
The aforementioned conventions and treaties also prohibit acts of torture, and other ill, inhuman, or degrading treatment. Such prohibition is absolute and is not subject to any justifications, limitations, or excuses, and is applicable in both times of peace and war. The UN Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 1984 (CAT) also prohibited torture and defined it as any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person. Torture is also prohibited under rules of the Customary IHL.[23] Hence, the acts of beating, torture, as well as insults and words that touch the dignity, such as “dogs and pigs, or requesting to imitate the sounds of dogs” lie under the crimes in aforementioned instruments.
Sexual violence is one of the principal prohibitions under IHL, as it constitutes violence against life and the person, an assault on personal dignity, degrading treatment, and a form of torture. Such acts are considered grave breaches of IHL. Moreover, sexual violence is recognized as a standalone crime under various international treaties and instruments. The Rome Statute, which established the International Criminal Court (ICC), includes a list of war crimes and crimes against humanity that categorically defines all types of sexual violence as separate crimes due to their gravity. Article 1 of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women of 1993 defines “violence against women” as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts. Article 2 further clarifies that violence against women includes—but is not limited to—physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring within the family or the broader community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, and intimidation in the workplace, educational institutions, or elsewhere.[24]
On the other hand, arbitrary arrest and enforced disappearance have been prohibited and criminalized pursuant to the abovementioned conventions and charters. This act has been defined, criminalized, and explained upon in the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance of 2006, which affirmed that no exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification for enforced disappearance.[25]
The testimonies collected for this report indicate that the violations were carried out as part of a systematic policy. These acts did not target specific individuals, but rather the Kurdish population as a whole in the three areas covered by the report, based on the available evidence. The phrase “We will kill you wherever you go” most clearly reflects the deliberate nature of this targeted policy. Many of the reported violations—such as extrajudicial killings, acts of torture, degrading and humiliating treatment, sexual violence, and the unlawful seizure of real estate and movable property—constitute war crimes under Article 8 of the Rome Statute.[26] Furthermore, these and other violations, including arbitrary detention and enforced disappearance, may amount to crimes against humanity if proven to be part of a widespread or systematic attack.
The Syrian State assumes responsibility for the acts contradicting international law and are committed by its officials, representative parties, or entities acting on its behalf or under its authority. This responsibility entails the obligation to halt such violations, hold perpetrators accountable, and provide reparations to victims. The STG, which has declared itself the legitimate representative of the Syrian State and its legal personality, publicly announced during the “Victory Conference” that all SNA factions—including those implicated in the reported violations—have been integrated into the Syrian army, with Mr. Ahmed al-Sharaa named as president. Furthermore, Türkiye’s overall and/or effective control over several groups participating in the so-called Operation Dawn of Freedom constitutes a legal basis for holding the Turkish State responsible for the actions committed by these groups, insofar as such actions are deemed attributable to Türkiye by virtue of that control.
4.3. Recommendations:
The ongoing violations and crimes threaten to undermine the foundations of civil peace, heighten tension among affected communities, and increase the risk of escalating cycles of violence and retaliation. Therefore, the partner organizations believe it is crucial to direct a set of recommendations to the STG and other actors involved in the Syrian context. These recommendations aim to cease ongoing violations, prevent their recurrence, and ensure reparations for victims:
- The STG should enact legislation that explicitly provides for the accountability of individuals responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity, as the current Syrian laws do not adequately address these crimes. Such legislation must ensure that these crimes are not excluded under the principle of non-retroactivity of laws, regardless of the party involved. Furthermore, these laws should not limit accountability to crimes committed solely by the Syrian regime, as implied in Article 49(2) of the Constitutional Declaration.
- The STG should conduct impartial and transparent investigations into the crimes and violations committed across Syrian territory, including in the areas covered by this report. Perpetrators must be brought before an independent, neutral, and impartial judiciary. The principle of impunity must be abolished, and no immunity should be granted based on official capacity. Unbiased judicial committees should be established to investigate the crimes detailed in this report, as well as other large-scale, systematic violations across Syria. This is particularly relevant given the involvement of leaders from SNA factions, which took part in the Dawn of Freedom Operation—such as Ahrar al-Sharqiya, the Sultan Suleiman Shah Brigade/al-Amshat, and the al-Hamza/al-Hamzat Division—in human rights abuses, as documented in this report.
- Syrian civil society organizations, especially those working on documentation of violations, should intensify their efforts in collecting and reporting data, publish regular updates on their findings, advocate for accountability, and work to prevent the recurrence of such violations. Additionally, they should promote legal awareness around human rights and fundamental freedoms.
- UN bodies—including the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (COI), the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism (IIIM), and the Independent Institution on Missing Persons in the Syrian Arab Republic (IIMP)—should increase their field visits to Syria. These missions should engage directly with victims in affected areas, publish periodic reports, and directly address the STG to demand an end to the ongoing violations.
- The international community should actively monitor the STG’s compliance with human rights standards and obligations as outlined in international covenants and charters. It should consistently call on the STG to fulfil its legal obligations by ending violations and holding perpetrators accountable.
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[1] “The Turkish-backed SNA Announces Control over Manbij City and Seizing it from the SDF” (in Arabic), al-Araby TV, a video published on YouTube, 8 December 2024 (last accessed: 2 March 2025). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebcpmMqM098
[2]“Operation Dawn of Freedom Against Assad Forces, Iran, and PYD Terrorist Militia” (in Arabic), SNC, 1 December 2024 (last accessed: 2 March 2025), https://en.etilaf.org/press/on-the-dawn-of-freedom-operation-against-assad-forces-iran-and-pyd-terrorist-militia
[3] “Deterrence of Aggression: A Military Operation that Toppled the Assad Regime in 12 Days” (in Arabic), Al-Jazeera, 2 January 2025 (last accessed: 2 March 2025), https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/2024/11/29/%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7
[4]“Syrian National Coalition PM: Operation Freedom Dawn aims to cut PKK supply lines”, Türkiye Today, 30 November 2024 (last accessed: 2 March 2025), https://www.turkiyetoday.com/region/syrian-interim-pm-operation-freedom-dawn-aims-to-cut-pkk-supply-lines-86862/
[5] “Treasury Sanctions Two Syria-Based Militias Responsible for Serious Human Rights Abuses in Northern Syria”, U.S. Department of the Treasury, 17 August 2023, (last accessed: 3 March 2025), https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy1699
[6] Ibid.
[7] “Treasury Sanctions Syrian Regime Prisons, Officials, and Syrian Armed Group”, U.S. Department of Treasury, 28 July 2021 (last accessed: 3 March 2025), https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0292
[8] “Syria: Damning evidence of war crimes and other violations by Turkish forces and their allies”, Amnesty International, 18 October 2019 (last accessed: 4 March 2025), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkish-forces-and-their-allies/
[9] “Victory Conference: Declaring the Triumph of the Revolution, Dissolving the Constitution, the Ba’ath Party and the Army, and al-Sharaa as the President of the Republic” (in Arabic), Shaam Network, 29 January 2025 (last accessed: 4 March 2025), https://shaam.org/news/syria-news/%D9%85%D8%A4%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A5%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%B2%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B4-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9
[10] “Within Days: The Syrian Coalition Set to Dissolve Itself” (in Arabic), Syria TV, 10 February 2025 (last accessed: 4 March 2025). https://www.syria.tv/%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%BA%D8%B6%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B2%D9%85-%D8%AD%D9%84-%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%87
[11] “Syrian Defence Ministry Appoints “Abu Amsha” as Hama Brigade Commander” (in Arabic), Enab Baladi, 3 February 2025 (last accessed: 4 March 2025), https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2025/02/syrian-defense-ministry-appoints-abu-amsha-as-hama-brigade-commander/
[12] “The Syrian Regime Appoints Suheil al-Hassan as the Commander of the “Special Forces”” (in Arabic), Enab Baladi, 10 April 2024 (last accessed: 4 March 2025), https://www.enabbaladi.net/695254/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D9%86-%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF%D9%8B%D8%A7/
[13] “Appointment of ‘Abu Amsha’ as Commander of the 25th Division Sparks Controversy in Syria—Who Is He (Video)?” (in Arabic), Erem News, 4 February 2025 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://www.eremnews.com/videos/jkmdfdi
[14] “Sayf Boulad: From a Defector Lieutenant of the Syrian Regime to Commander of the 76th Division in the Syrian Army” (in Arabic), Al-Araby Al-Jadeed, 24 March 2025, (last accessed: 30 March 2025), https://www.alaraby.co.uk/politics/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%85-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%82-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A9-76-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B4-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A
[15] “A Special Interview with the Syrian Minister of Defence Marhaf Abu Qasra- the Ministry’s Priority, the Role of the Factions, and the Future of the SDF” (in Arabic), al-Araby, YouTube video, 21 January 2025 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDQ3b7ZENbU
[16] “Explainer: Thousands of Civilians Driven Out of Shehba”, Rojava Information Centre, 4 December 2024 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://rojavainformationcenter.org/2024/12/explainer-thousands-of-civilians-driven-out-of-shehba/
[17] “Tens of Thousands of Kurds Flee Shahab in Aleppo Countryside to Tabqa after Being Displaced by Turkish-Backed Factions” (in Arabic), Kurd Online, 2 December 2024 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://kurd-online.com/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%85-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D8%AA/
[18] “’Everything is by the Power of the Weapon’: Abuses and Impunity in Turkish-Occupied Northern Syria”, Human Rights Watch, 29 February 2024 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/02/29/everything-power-weapon/abuses-and-impunity-turkish-occupied-northern-syria
[19] “What Lies Behind Accusing SDF of Manbij Bombings” (in Arabic), Enab Baladi, 14 February 2025, (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://www.enabbaladi.net/737424/%d9%85%d8%a7-%d9%88%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%a1-%d8%a7%d8%aa%d9%87%d8%a7%d9%85-%d9%82%d8%b3%d8%af-%d8%a8%d8%aa%d9%81%d8%ac%d9%8a%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%aa-%d9%85%d9%86%d8%a8%d8%ac/
[20] “Syria/Manbij Bombing: “The Terrifying Scenes Haunt Me Every Moment””, STJ, 16 April 2025 (last accessed: 28 April 2025), https://stj-sy.org/en/syria-manbij-bombing-the-terrifying-scenes-haunt-me-every-moment/
[21] “Northeast Syria: Apparent War Crime by Türkiye-Backed Forces”, Human Rights Watch, 30 January 2025 (last accessed: 6 March 2025), https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/01/30/northeast-syria-apparent-war-crime-turkiye-backed-forces
[22] “Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic”, Constitution Net, 13 March 2025 (last accessed: 30 March 2025), https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/2025-03/2025.03.13%20-%20Constitutional%20declaration%20%28English%29.pdf
[23] Rule 90: Torture and Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment, https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v1/rule90
[24] Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-elimination-violence-against-women
[25]International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-protection-all-persons-enforced
[26] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-protection-all-persons-enforced